What is fracking, and why is it so controversial?
«Fracking» is «hydraulic fracturing» in English: fracking is a process by which production water, sand, and chemicals similar to those we use at home every day are injected at very high pressures to break open rock layers and release the oil or gas trapped inside at more than 1500 meters deep.
What is fracking, and why is it so controversial?
Technically, fracking is not new: companies have used this technique for decades to extract oil and gas from hard-to-exploit rock formations. Halliburton first used hydraulic fracturing in 1949 as a way to increase gas flow from wells in Kansas.
In recent years, however, fracking has spread much further. In the mid-2000s, U.S. companies discovered how to combine fracking with methods like horizontal drilling to extract oil and gas from large underground shale rock formations at a reasonable price. There is a large amount of oil and gas in the shale, so this breakthrough led to a drilling boom in states like North Dakota, Texas, and Pennsylvania.
The «fracking boom» has reshaped the U.S. energy landscape. Domestic production of oil and natural gas has increased significantly, resulting in cheaper energy and less dependence on imports.
Advocates often argue that fracking is creating jobs, boosting manufacturing, and helping to combat global warming by reducing the amount of coal we use. Opponents often argue that the industry is poorly regulated, the benefits of global warming are overstated, and that fracking has led to increased air and water pollution across the country.
https://www.vox.com/cards/fracking/what-is-fracking
How does fracking work, exactly?
The use of hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling to extract oil or gas from shale rock involves a series of steps. Let's look at a basic hydraulic fracturing operation for natural gas in, say, Marcellus Shale in Pennsylvania:
1) First, a well or hole must be drilled down to the gas-rich shale layer. This shale layer can be more than 5,000 feet underground, and drilling can take up to a month. The well is lined with a steel casing to prevent contamination of nearby groundwater or aquifers.
2) Once the drill reaches the shale layer, it slowly turns and begins to drill horizontally, for a mile or more along the rock.
3) A «perforating gun» loaded with micro-explosive charges is lowered to the bottom of the well and perforates small holes in the horizontal section of the casing that is at the bottom of the shale or hard rock layer.
4) Now comes the stage of fracking or the actual «completion»: a mixture of water, sand, and chemicals is pumped into the well at extremely high pressures and passes through the small holes in the casing. The fluids open the shale rock so that gas or oil can flow out since this tightly packed rock has no conduits to allow the hydrocarbon to move. The sand keeps those cracks open by filling the generated spaces but with high porosity so that the hydrocarbon can be extracted. And the chemicals, which are no different from those used to make soap, toothpaste, ice cream, and other products, help natural gas to flow.
5) «Return» stage: the water and chemicals flow back up the well and are taken for disposal or treatment; the water that is injected and extracted is water that has remained underground for centuries and is not potable; only when it is extracted and treated within the oil fields can it be used for irrigation and even made potable.
6) Finally, natural gas begins to flow from the shale and up the well, where it is eventually sent to consumers through a pipeline. A typical well can produce gas for 20 to 40 years, pumping thousands of cubic feet of gas per day.
That is a very rough description of the fracking process. There are many variations, depending on the geology of the region or the technologies used. (Other particles besides sand are often used, for example. And here is a partial list of some of the different techniques used in North Dakota, for example).
https://www.vox.com/cards/fracking/what-is-fracking
Where is fracking taking place in the United States?
This interactive map from the Post Carbon Institute shows the location of more than 63,000 oil shale and gas shale wells across the country. Much of the activity is concentrated in Texas, North Dakota, Louisiana, and the Marcellus Shale region in the east:
These are not the only oil and gas wells in the United States (the shale accounts for approximately 29 percent of total oil production and 40 percent of gas). But they are the ones that tend to rely heavily on fracking.
The Energy Information Administration has its own map of the major shale formations across the country, including Bakken in North Dakota, Eagle Ford in Texas, and Marcellus in Pennsylvania and West Virginia.
How has fracking driven oil and gas production in the United States?
Since the late 2000s, the amount of oil and natural gas produced in the United States has increased dramatically, thanks to hydraulic fracturing, horizontal drilling, offshore drilling, and other advanced techniques. Supplies are projected to grow even further in the coming years:
Crude oil: By November 2013, the United States was producing 7.8 million barrels of crude oil per day, the highest amount in a quarter of a century. Oil production is now expected to continue growing to a peak of 9.6 million barrels per day in 2019:
Natural gas: U.S. natural gas production has also reached new historical highs, at 24 trillion cubic feet in November 2013. Supplies are currently expected to grow at least until 2040:
Note that these predictions are far from perfect: ten years ago, few predicted the fracking boom.
How has fracking affected the U.S. economy?
The oil and gas boom, driven by fracking, has had all kinds of effects on the U.S. economy. Here are some of the big ones:
More jobs in some states: more drilling means more jobs. The oil and gas industry added 169,000 positions between 2010 and 2012, growing ten times faster than the nation as a whole. Texas, North Dakota, and Pennsylvania have seen some of the largest gains:
Greater economic growth: the oil and gas industry is a fairly small portion of the overall U.S. economy, but analysts tend to agree that the fracking boom has helped boost the country's growth a bit. JP Morgan estimates that the oil and gas boom added 0.3 percentage points to economic growth in 2013. Other models suggest that the boom could add 0.5 percentage points to growth each year over the next decade.
Lower energy prices (sometimes): oil remains quite expensive, because the price of crude depends on global supply and demand factors. But U.S. natural gas prices have fallen significantly since the mid-2000s (although they rebounded during the cold winter of 2013, when heating demand increased). This saved money for consumers. It also means that power plants are more likely to use natural gas for electricity.
The decline of coal energy: many power companies have taken advantage of cheap prices to switch from coal to natural gas as their preferred energy source. This shift has reduced a variety of air pollutants, as well as carbon dioxide emissions that contribute to global warming. This trend is hurting the coal industry, and one of the reasons why a quarter of the nation's coal plants have closed since 2011.
A boost for U.S. manufacturing: the excess cheap natural gas from the United States is also attracting some manufacturers to the U.S. Factories being built in Texas and Pennsylvania will convert natural gas into ethylene, a key ingredient in plastics and antifreeze. (That said, it is unclear how many companies this will affect, as a Morgan Stanley note points out, energy is still a small fraction of costs for most industries).
Low imports: the United States is importing much less oil and natural gas than before, one of the reasons why the trade deficit has fallen to its lowest level since 1998. In fact, many companies now argue that the U.S. government should relax its restrictions on the sale of U.S. oil and gas abroad.
Does fracking pollute water and air?
It can. As fracking operations have spread across the United States, they have sparked protests over air and water pollution. Below is an overview of some key concerns:
Groundwater contamination: A major concern is whether the chemicals used in fracking or natural gas could contaminate people's drinking water. (There is concern, for example, that leaks of natural gas could make people's tap water flammable).
There are two main ways this could happen. One is through accidents or contamination near the surface. In recent years, fracking wells have exploded in states like North Dakota. In another incident, thousands of gallons of fracking fluid leaked from a storage tank in Dimock, Pennsylvania. And poorly constructed wells with cement issues can allow fluids or gas to migrate upwards. The Environmental Protection Agency is conducting a major study on this type of contamination and how to prevent it.
A second question is whether chemicals or natural gas could somehow migrate from the shale layer thousands of feet deep to the groundwater, even if the wells are perfectly constructed. This second possibility is considered unlikely, as there are dozens of layers of rock separating the shale from the groundwater. Still, the EPA had been studying a well (relatively shallow) in Wyoming, where chemicals appeared to have infiltrated the water.
Wastewater contamination: a separate issue is what happens to all that water after it has been used to fracture the shale and is pumped back to the surface. The oil and gas industry produces billions of gallons of this murky wastewater each year, which typically contains chemicals that were added for the fracking process.
In many states, this wastewater is pumped underground into separate «injection wells.» But when there are not enough injection wells available, the water is stored in tanks and retention ponds or sent to treatment plants. This increases the risk of accidental spills or inadequate treatment. In 2013, three treatment plants in Pennsylvania were fined for dumping waste into the Allegheny River.
Air pollution: once an area of shale has been fractured, natural gas begins to flow up the well. Most of this methane is typically captured, but some may escape into the air or leak through the pipes, and methane is a potent greenhouse gas that warms the planet.
Separately, another report found that certain chemical gases like benzene can escape into the air, posing a health risk to nearby residents in Colorado. In 2012, the EPA began requiring oil and gas companies to limit these emissions and capture the escaping gas.
What chemicals are used in fracking?
Oil and gas companies typically add chemicals to the water used for fracking. These chemicals can help reduce friction or prevent corrosion and more. They generally represent about 0.5 percent to 2 percent of the liquid volume.
Different operations require different chemicals, but a total of different fracking chemicals have been identified. Some of the additives used are quite common, including salt and citric acid. Others, like benzene, are toxic.
It can sometimes be difficult to obtain a complete list of the chemicals used. Many fracking companies are now listing the compounds they employ on their websites, and some states like Texas have public disclosure laws, but these rules can vary from state to state.
Does fracking use a lot of water?
Fracking requires a lot of water to break the shale rock. A typical well can use between 2 and 7 million gallons over its lifetime, but the water extracted from production and reinjected is cyclical, not always taken from external water sources; the same water that comes from the depths and is non-potable because it has been contained there for millions of years is used.
How much is that all together? In 2011, the water used for shale wells accounted for approximately 0.3 percent of U.S. freshwater consumption. But percentages can vary by region: in Texas, it is around 1 percent.
That raises the question of whether it can stress local water supplies. In the dry regions of Texas or Colorado, fracking operations can put a bit of stress on local water sources. But that is not universal. In the Marcellus region in the east, by contrast, studies have found that there is no danger of water scarcity.
How is fracking regulated in the United States?
Fracking is currently regulated by the states, which have very different rules on everything from chemical disclosure to wastewater treatment and wellbore integrity.
You can find a number of useful maps that show the status of different fracking regulations at Resources for the Future. This map, for example, shows how different states regulate the underground injection of wastewater. Missouri has no regulations, while North Carolina has a state ban:
One of the main issues is whether the federal government should get more involved in fracking regulations. Currently, the Environmental Protection Agency has issued rules requiring oil and gas companies to limit air pollution from fracking operations, and is currently studying groundwater contamination. But for now, the federal government has tread lightly. And Congress has exempted fracking from certain provisions of the Clean Water Act.
Some states and localities, meanwhile, have proposed blanket bans on fracking. The state of New York, for example, has had a moratorium since 2010. Here is a longer list of regulations in the United States.
Can fracking cause earthquakes?
Fracking itself has rarely been linked to earthquakes (although Ohio is investigating this). But it is believed that the disposal of wastewater used in fracking could generate micro-tremors, this in a scenario where the water discharge is not adequate; however, there is no scientific proof that this can occur.
Once a well is fractured, thousands of gallons of wastewater remain. In the United States, some companies often dispose of chemically treated water by pumping it into separate underground «injection wells.» As the water pressure builds up in those wells, it can change the rocks. If those rocks are near a geological fault, that could trigger a tremor. At least that is the belief. In Colombia, the law does not allow the water to be discharged in that way until a special treatment is done to separate all the chemicals from the water, and this water can be almost potable.
A study conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey found that earthquakes were increasing in areas where wastewater injection was increasing. A follow-up study found that wastewater injection likely caused an earthquake in Oklahoma in 2011.
It is worth noting that not all injection wells are associated with earthquakes, and many of these events were minor tremors. Still, there are many questions about whether these earthquakes could become stronger as fracking expands.
How much oil and gas does the U.S. have?
As of 2011, the United States had 220 billion barrels of oil and 2.203 trillion cubic feet of natural gas that was «technically recoverable.».
This is the oil and gas that we currently have the technology to access. But that does not mean we are actually going to extract all that oil and gas. Much depends on economic conditions. If prices rise, then it will be more profitable for companies to drill for more oil and gas. But if prices fall, it becomes less profitable, and they may leave it in the ground.
That is why many analysts focus on a different measure, known as «proven reserves,» what we could recover given the existing technology and economic conditions. According to that measure, there are 29 billion barrels of oil and 348.8 trillion cubic feet of natural gas available.
To put all this in perspective, the United States consumed about 7 billion barrels of oil and 26 trillion cubic feet of natural gas in 2012. That means we have anywhere from 13 years of natural gas supply to 84 years of supply. It all depends.
What do we use oil and gas for?
Many things. About 93 percent of the fuel we use for transportation comes from oil. And natural gas is currently used to provide about one-third of the country's electricity. Here is a more precise breakdown:
Oil: The U.S. currently consumes about 15 million barrels of crude oil per day after it is processed by oil refineries. Approximately 87 percent is converted into fuel for cars, trucks, and airplanes. Some of the oil is refined to turn it into heating fuel. The rest is used for a wide range of industrial purposes (to make chemicals, paints, plastics, greases, asphalt, etc.).
Natural gas: The United States consumed nearly 25 trillion cubic feet of natural gas in 2012. About 36 percent of that was used to generate electricity at power plants. Another 28 percent was used to heat homes and buildings. And the rest was used for various industrial purposes (generating electricity or heat to help produce everything from steel to paper and food).
What is the debate about U.S. oil and gas exports?
In recent decades, the United States has been a major importer of oil and natural gas. But thanks to the fracking boom, the country is now in a position to sell some of its new abundance to other countries. But that would require changing certain laws, and doing so is controversial.
Natural gas: If companies want to send natural gas to other countries, they must obtain a permit from the Department of Energy to do so (they automatically get it if the U.S. has a free trade agreement with that country). More and more companies are applying for export permits these days and building shipping terminals.
Those who oppose these plans say that increasing exports could lead to a rise in the price of natural gas for Americans, harming consumers and domestic manufacturers. See here for more details.
Oil: Since the 1970s, it has been illegal for companies to export crude oil abroad (with some exceptions). Following the fracking boom, many oil companies want to revise these laws, claiming that these restrictions are depressing prices and harming their businesses. Opponents of exports argue, among other things, that this could raise gasoline prices for some drivers in the Midwest. See here for more details.
Can the United States become independent from foreign oil?
It is unlikely, in part because «oil independence» is a myth.
At this moment, the United States imports 40 percent of the oil it consumes. That number is expected to decrease to about 32 percent in the coming decades, thanks to increased production and the fact that we are driving more efficient vehicles. But it still means many imports:
Even if we could reduce our imports to zero, however, the United States would still not be fully independent from foreign countries. That’s because oil prices are set in the global market. Therefore, instability in the Middle East or rapid growth in China would continue to drive global oil prices, leading to an increase in prices here in the United States.
Can natural gas help combat global warming?
In theory, yes, although there are major caveats here.
Natural gas is a fossil fuel, and when we burn it for electricity, we produce carbon dioxide emissions that contribute to global warming. But natural gas is much cleaner in this respect than coal, producing only half the carbon dioxide per unit of energy. So, when we replace coal with natural gas, we are contributing a little less to global warming.
That is what is happening in the United States. The excess cheap shale gas has convinced many power companies to switch from coal to natural gas. That was one of the reasons why U.S. carbon dioxide emissions fell by 10 percent between 2005 and 2013 (the recession and increased efficiency also helped).
However, there is a catch: the entire process of fracturing and transporting natural gas can generate methane emissions, another potent greenhouse gas. No one is sure how large the methane leaks are; there are many disagreements among researchers. But those leaks could undermine the climate benefits of natural gas unless companies find ways to fix them.
In the long term, however, natural gas remains a source of greenhouse gas emissions, and efforts to avoid drastic global warming will likely require the world to drastically cut its use of gas in the coming decades. So, natural gas alone is not a solution to global warming.
Do other countries use fracking?
A few countries have been using fracking for some time – mainly Canada. But shale fracking has not been seen anywhere as it has in the United States.
Many countries abroad have their own shale gas and shale oil resources. That includes China, which appears to have almost twice the underground shale gas as the United States:
But fracking has spread slowly abroad for a variety of reasons. Some countries, like France and the Netherlands, have partially banned fracking for fear of water contamination. Others, like Austria, have such strict regulations that drilling is not economical and therefore not profitable to frack.
Even countries in favor of fracking have seen slow progress, partly because working with shale can be extremely difficult and complicated. In Poland, there is still much work to be done to understand the geology of the region. And, in China, the expansion of fracking has been ohindered by a variety of factors: complex geology, water supply shortages in key regions, and a burdensome layer of regulations that hinder innovation of this new technology which may be key to energy self-sufficiency in the coming years, where the demand is increasing every day and mobilizing millions of people, machinery, industries, heating homes in winter or for food preparation is becoming higher and alternative energies are not sufficient to meet this dependence on hydrocarbons.
Global Shale Gas Resource Assessments
Last updated: September 24, 2015
This series of reports provides an initial assessment of global shale oil and shale gas resources. The first edition was released in 2011, and updates are published continuously. Four countries were added in 2014: Chad, Kazakhstan, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and are available as supplementary chapters of the 2013 report on technically recoverable shale oil and gas resources.
The most current version of each country’s chapter is linked in the country table below. Archived editions are provided in links in the sidebar column to the right.
| Technically unproven recoverable | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Region | Country | wet shale gas (trillions of cubic feet) |
tight oil (billion barrels) |
Date updated |
| North America | ||||
| Fracking allowed | Canada | 572.9 | 8.8 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed |
Mexico | 545.2 | 13.1 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | US 1 | 622.5 | 78.2 | 14/4/15 |
| Australia | ||||
| Fracking allowed | Australia 2 | 429.3 | 15.6 | 17/5/13 |
| South America | ||||
| Fracking allowed | Argentina | 801.5 | 27.0 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Bolivia | 36.4 | 0.6 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Brazil | 244.9 | 5.3 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Chile | 48.5 | 2.3 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking is not allowed |
Colombia | 54.7 | 6.8 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Paraguay | 75.3 | 3.7 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking not allowed for new projects | Uruguay 3 | 4.6 | 0.6 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Venezuela | 167.3 | 13.4 | 17/5/13 |
| Eastern Europe | ||||
| Fracking not allowed for new projects | Bulgaria | 16.6 | 0.2 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Lithuania / Kaliningrad | 2.4 | 1.4 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Poland | 145.8 | 1.8 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Romania | 50.7 | 0.3 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Russia | 284.5 | 74.6 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Turkey | 23.6 | 4.7 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed |
Ukraine | 127.9 | 1.1 | 17/5/13 |
| Eastern Europe | ||||
| Fracking not allowed for new projects | Denmark | 31.7 | 0.0 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking not allowed for new projects |
France | 136.7 | 4.7 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking not allowed for new projects | Germany | 17.0 | 0.7 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking not allowed for new projects | Netherlands | 25.9 | 2.9 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Norway | 0.0 | 0.0 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Spain | 8.4 | 0.1 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking not allowed for new projects | Sweden | 9.8 | 0.0 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed in Ireland | United Kingdom | 25.8 | 0.7 | 17/5/13 |
| North Africa | ||||
| Fracking not allowed for new projects | Algeria | 706.9 | 5.7 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Egypt | 100.0 | 4.6 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Libya | 121.6 | 26.1 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Mauritania | 0.0 | 0.0 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Morocco | 11.9 | 0.0 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Tunisia | 22.7 | 1.5 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Western Sahara | 8.6 | 0.2 | 17/5/13 |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | ||||
| Fracking allowed | Chad | 44.4 | 16.2 | 29/12/14 |
| Fracking allowed | South Africa | 389.7 | 0.0 | 17/5/13 |
| Asia | ||||
| Fracking allowed | China | 1115.2 | 32.2 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | India | 96.4 | 3.8 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Indonesia | 46.4 | 7.9 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Mongolia | 4.4 | 3.4 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Pakistan | 105.2 | 9.1 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Thailand | 5.4 | 0.0 | 17/5/13 |
| Caspian | ||||
| Fracking allowed | Kazakhstan | 27.5 | 10.6 | 29/12/14 |
| Middle East | ||||
| Fracking allowed | Jordan | 6.8 | 0.1 | 17/5/13 |
| Fracking allowed | Oman | 48.3 | 6.2 | 29/12/14 |
| Fracking allowed | United Arab Emirates | 205.3 | 22.6 | 29/12/14 |
| 46 Total countries | 7,576.6 | 418.9 | ||
|
bbl = barrels; Tcf = trillion cubic feet. |
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